BASIC STRUCTURES 1: THE SENTENCE

By Georgina Jacobs

❓ ¿A quién le importa esto?

Para construir correctamente un texto, es importante saber cómo estructurar correctamente un párrafo y, antes que eso, una oración. Por eso, me parece buena idea incluir una serie de posts sobre las estructuras básicas del idioma y poner los cimientos para explicar otros temas de manera mucho más clara y simple. 

Muy bien, empecemos por lo primero: LA ORACIÓN.

❓ What is a SENTENCE?

GRAMMAR PILLS: CASE OF PRONOUNS + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

By Georgina Jacobs

❓ What is case?

Cambridge dictionary ⇒ ‘case’ is “any of the various types to which a noun (or pronoun) can belong, according to the work it does in a sentence (clause), shown in some languages by a special word ending; for example: the accusative/dative case.” 

➧Llamamos 'case' a la forma que toma un nombre / sustantivo / pronombre según la función que tiene en la oración; por ejemplo: caso acusativo / caso dativo.

❓ What is a pronoun?

BASIC STRUCTURES 2: PARTS OF SPEECH

By Georgina Jacobs

In English, like in Spanish, a word is a single unit that has full meaning and can stand alone or be part of a larger structure (spoken or written).

Words can be classified according to their meaning and function and divided into different categories or parts of speech. Some books list up to 8 or 9 parts of speech depending on whether they take determiners as adjectives or as a separate category. Others divide verbs into lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs. In my posts, for the sake of simplification, I’ll be taking determiners as adjectives and treating verbs as a single part of speech (unless otherwise stated), so the 8 major parts of speech in English grammar are noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. 

GRAMMAR PILLS: How to use articles - A/AN, THE and ZERO article

By Georgina Jacobs

❓ How do we use articles in English?

💡 Quick answer:

NOUNS	In general (indefinite / non-specific)	In particular (definite / specific)
Uncountable Countable Plural	(1) Zero article	(3) the (el, la, los, las)
Countable Singular	(2) a / an (un, uno, una)

💡 EXTENDED ANSWER:

(1) When we talk about an uncountable noun or a countable plural noun in general (i.e. we talk about all the items in a group, or there is no need to specify an item in particular), we do NOT use an article:
➧Cuando hablamos de un sustantivo (=nombre) incontable o contable plural en general (es decir, hablamos de todos los elementos de un conjunto o no hay necesidad de especificar uno en particular), NO usamos artículo:

⟶ Advances in technology (❌The advances) have made it easier for us to keep in touch with our loved ones.
⟶ Modern technology (❌The modern technology) is essential to our lives, both at home and at work.
⟶ Students (❌The students) should hand in their assignments on time.
⟶ People (❌The people) are the same everywhere.
👉In these examples, we are talking about 'technology', 'students', and 'people' in general.

(2) When we talk about a countable singular noun in general (i.e. we talk about one non-specific item in a group), we use a / an (the indefinite article):
➧Cuando hablamos de un sustantivo contable singular en general (es decir, hablamos de un elemento no especificado en un conjunto), usamos 'a' / 'an' (un, uno, una = el artículo indefinido):

⟶ I went to a pub last night. (Fui a un bar anoche.)
⟶ I’ve got a car. (Tengo un coche.)
⟶ He gave me an apple. (Él me dio una manzana.)

🔺 ‘A’ or ‘an’?

Use ‘a’ before words that start with a consonant SOUND:
➧Usamos ‘a’ antes de palabras que comienzan con un SONIDO consonante:

⟶ A university degree ⇒ ‘u’ is pronounced /juː/ here, and /j/ is a consonant sound
⟶ a one-hour class ⇒ ‘one’ is pronounced /wʌn/, and /w/ is a consonant sound
⟶ a uniform / a house, etc.

Use ‘an’ before words that start with a vowel SOUND:
➧Usamos ‘a’ antes de palabras que comienzan con un SONIDO vocal:
⟶ An honest man ⇒ ‘h’ is silent here, and the first sound is a vowel: /ˈɒnɪst/
⟶ an hour ⇒ ‘h’ is silent here, and the first sound is a vowel: /aʊə/
⟶ an MBA degree, etc.

(3) When we talk about an uncountable, a countable plural or a countable singular noun in particular (i.e. we talk about a specific item, or there is only one item in the group, and it is therefore clear which item we are talking about – e.g.: ‘the sun’), we use ‘the’ (the definite article):
➧Cuando hablamos de un sustantivo incontable, contable plural o contable singular en particular (es decir, hablamos un elemento específico, o hay un solo elemento en el conjunto, por ejemplo: ‘the sun’, ‘el sol’), usamos ‘the’ (el, la, los, las = el artículo definido):

⟶ A look at the advances in technology during the 1960s (los avances en tecnología durante la década de los 60), from washing machines to computers. (BBC Four) (a specific set of advances)
⟶ The students who failed the exam (Los alumnos que reprobaron el examen) should study hard for the resit. (a specific group of students)
⟶ The people who migrate (La gente que migra) are called migrants. (a specific group of people)

👉The rules above apply to almost all cases; however, there are some special uses that should also be taken into account. Read more:

• A, an, and the: how to use articles in English (From Cambridge Dictionary Blog)
• A/an and the (From Cambridge English Grammar Today)
• Use or articles with Geographical places (From Cambridge English Grammar Today)
• Use of articles with Place names (From Cambridge English Grammar Today)
• Nationalities, languages, countries and regions (From Cambridge English Grammar Today)

🎬 VIDEOS:

Using zero articles - BBC English Class (2:10 minutes)

The definite article - BBC English Class (2:22 minutes)

Learn about indefinite articles with singular countable nouns - BBC English Class (2:40 minutes)

GRAMMAR: How to use the definite article with abstract uncountable nouns (6:04 minutes)

📌 Practice:

• A / An / The Worksheets 1
• A / An / The or Nothing 2
• A / An / The or Nothing 3
• Articles Exercise 4
• Articles a/an/the 5
• Articles Worksheet 6
• Articles with Geographical Names Exercise 1
• Articles with Geographical Names Exercise 2
• ARTICLE or NO ARTICLE? 1
• ARTICLE or NO ARTICLE? 2
• ARTICLE or NO ARTICLE? 3
• ARTICLE or NO ARTICLE? 4
• Articles: A or THE? 1
• Articles: A or THE? 2
• Articles with geographic names 1
• Articles with idioms 1
• Articles with idioms 2
• Articles with idioms 3
• Articles with idioms 4
• Articles with idioms 5
• Articles with idioms 6
• Mixed Articles 1
• Mixed Articles 2
• Mixed Articles 3
• Mixed Articles 4
• Mixed Articles 5
• Mixed Articles 6
• Mixed Articles 7
• Mixed Articles 8
• Mixed Articles 9
• Mixed Articles 10
• Articles: The/A/An 1
• Articles: The/A/An 2
• Articles: The/A/An 3
• Choose the right article 1
• Choose the right article 2
• Choose the right article 3
• Choose the right article 4
• Choose the right article 5
• Choose the right article 6
• Choose the right article 7
• Choose the right article 8
• Choose the right article 9
• Choose the right article 10

Georgina Jacobs

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SINGULAR 'THEY' (From Oxford English Dictionary Blog)

👉 An excerpt from "A brief history of singular they", by Dennis Baron

Singular ‘they’ has become the pronoun of choice to replace ‘he and she’ in cases where the gender of the antecedent – the word the pronoun refers to – is unknown, irrelevant, or nonbinary, or where gender needs to be concealed. It’s the word we use for sentences like ‘Everyone loves his mother’.

Since forms may exist in speech long before they’re written down, it’s likely that singular 'they' was common even before the late fourteenth century. That makes an old form even older.

In the eighteenth century, grammarians began warning that singular 'they' was an error because a plural pronoun can’t take a singular antecedent. They clearly forgot that singular 'you' was a plural pronoun that had become singular as well. You functioned as a polite singular for centuries, but in the seventeenth century singular 'you' replaced 'thou', 'thee', and 'thy', except for some dialect use. That change met with some resistance. […]

Singular 'you' has become normal and unremarkable. […] And singular 'they' is well on its way to being normal and unremarkable as well. Toward the end of the twentieth century, language authorities began to approve the form. The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) not only accepts singular they, they also use the form in their definitions. And the New Oxford American Dictionary (Third Edition, 2010), calls singular 'they' ‘generally accepted’ with indefinites, and ‘now common but less widely accepted’ with definite nouns, especially in formal contexts.

Not everyone is down with singular 'they'. The well-respected Chicago Manual of Style still rejects singular 'they' for formal writing, and just the other day a teacher told me that he still corrects students who use ‘everyone … their’ in their papers, though he probably uses singular 'they' when his students aren’t looking. […]

💡 GO TO FULL ARTICLE

👉 Dennis Baron – Professor of English and linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Read Dennis’s blog, The Web of Language, and follow him on Twitter as @DrGrammar.

GRAMMAR PILLS: HE/SHE or THEY? - GENDER INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE

By Georgina Jacobs

Should we say "help a student with his/her homework" or "help a student with their homework"?

💡 Quick answer:

→ In informal contexts, use the 3rd person plural: 'they', 'them', 'theirs', 'their' or 'themselves' ⇒ help a student with their homework.

→ In formal contexts, use the 3rd person singular: 'he/she', 'him/her', 'his/hers', 'his/her' or 'himself/herself' ⇒ help a student with his or her homework.

→ If possible, use a plural noun + the 3rd person plural ⇒ help students with their homework.

💡 EXTENDED ANSWER:

A pronoun replaces a noun or noun phrase. The noun or noun phrase replaced is called the 'antecedent' of the pronoun, and the pronoun must agree in person and number with its antecedent.
➧El pronombre reemplaza al nombre. El nombre reemplazado es el 'antecedente' del pronombre, y ambos deben concordar en persona y número.

❓ Entonces, ¿cuál es el problema?

El problema es que, en inglés, la 3ra persona singular tiene 'he' (masculino), 'she' (femenino) e 'it' (animales + nombres inanimados).

Por lo tanto, cuando debemos reemplazar o referirnos a un nombre animado (persona) en singular que no distingue género (como 'a student', 'a child', 'somebody', 'everybody', 'a person', etc.), ¿deberíamos usar 'he' o 'she' o ambos?

HE/SHE: La primera respuesta puede ser que usemos ambos:
→ Everybody must do his or her best.
→ Someone has texted me; I don't know who he or she is.

Sin embargo, esto puede resultar pesado y confuso si aparece repetidamente en el texto.

THEY: Como solución, entonces, se ha comenzado a utilizar la 3ra persona plural (they) para incluir el femenino y el masculino:
→ Everybody must do their best.
    (Singular)              (plural)
→ Someone has texted me; I don't know who they are.
    (Singular)                                                (plural)
Esta opción no tiene aceptación unánime porque no hay concordancia en número entre el pronombre y su antecedente, y en contextos muy formales o académicos puede desaconsejarse. (See: Gender Neutral Language)

Sobre esta controversia, Oxford Dictionary dice: "Some people object to the use of plural pronouns in this type of situation on the grounds that it’s ungrammatical. In fact, the use of plural pronouns to refer back to a singular subject isn’t new: it represents a revival of a practice dating from the 16th century. It’s increasingly common in current English and is now widely accepted both in speech and in writing."

Finalmente, se recomienda usar el nombre en plural para que concuerde en número con 'they', pero esto no siempre es posible.

Ejemplo:

→ En lugar de: "A student should finish their homework before playing video games", podemos decir: "Students should finish their homework before playing video games"

→ Pero ¿cómo lo aplicaríamos en: "Someone has texted me; I don't know who they are"?

Sobre este tema Cambridge English Grammar Today dice: Traditionally, he and him were used to refer to both genders in formal writing: If anyone has any evidence to oppose this view, let him inform the police immediately. Nowadays, we often see gender neutral forms (e.g. he or she, he/she, s/he, (s)he, they and him or her, him/her, them) when we do not know if the person referred to is male or female: The bank manager could help with your problem. He or she will probably be able to give you a loan. (or … he/she will probably be able to … or … they will probably be able to …) Go to a hairdresser. Ask him or her to come up with a style that suits you, your hair, your lifestyle. (or … ask him/her to come up with a style … or … ask them to come up with a style …) When you get into the building, go to the person on the desk in the reception area. They can tell you where to go. (or He or she can tell you where to go.) 🔗See also: One and Sexist language

Gender-inclusive Language (From Speak English with Emma)

💡You may also want to read: A brief history of singular ‘they’ (from Oxford English Dictionaries Blog)

Georgina Jacobs

GRAMMAR PILLS: I or ME? + 'Peter and I' or 'Peter and me'?

By Georgina Jacobs

💡 Quick answer:

Use I (yo) ⇒ as the SUBJECT of a clause (como SUJETO) → {[Peter and I] [went to the cinema yesterday].} (Peter y yo)         Subject → (Dialogue at the door) Who is it? –It’s Peter and I! (Peter y yo)                                                  Subjective Complement Use he/she/it/we/you/they ⇒ as SUBJECT (como SUJETO) → {[Mary and he] [went to the cinema yesterday].} (Mary y él)          Subject

Use ME (me/mí) ⇒ as an OBJECT in a clause (como OBJETO) → {[Mary] [invited (Peter and me) (to her party)].}                             Direct Object → {[Mary] [told (Peter and me) (that she’s pregnant)].}                       Indirect Object → {[Mary] [bought (a present) (for Peter and me)].}                                        Object of the Preposition Use him/her/it/us/you/them ⇒ as OBJECT (como OBJETO) → {[I] [invited (Peter and her) (to my party)].}                         Direct Object → {[I] [told (Peter and her) (that I'm pregnant)].}                   Indirect Object → {[I] [bought (a present) (for Peter and her)].}                                        Object of the Preposition

'I' or 'me'? (3:00 minutes)

💡 EXTENDED ANSWER ⇒ See GRAMMAR PILLS: CASE OF PRONOUNS + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

🔗 SEE ALSO:

• GRAMMAR PILLS: OTHER OR ANOTHER? – OTHERS, THE OTHER AND THE OTHERS
• 'Who' or 'whom'? (From Oxford Dictionaries) ⇒ WHO or WHOM? (Exercise: Fill in each blank with who, whom, or whose.)

Georgina Jacobs